electricity.  All  data  and  instructions  are  represented (written) in a binary form. This is the ONLY form the computer is able to understand. Each computer has its own  machine  language;  therefore,  a  program  written  for one computer type cannot be transferred to another type of  computer  system. Writing  programs  in  machine language   code   is   time-consuming   and   requires   the programmer  to  specify  each  operation  code  and  the specific   location   for   each   piece   of   data   and   each instruction. Assembly  Languages We use assembly languages to avoid having to code directly   into   machine   code   (0s   and   1s).   Assembly languages  use  symbolic  codes  called  mnemonics   to represent  operations.  For  example,  the  letter  A could  be used for add, and the letters ST could be used for store. Although  assembly  languages  are  more  user-oriented than machine languages, they are still quite complex to work with as a programmer. Assembly languages are generally used by systems programmers to design and maintain  operating  systems  and  other  systems  software where  speed  of  operation  and  conserving  storage  are more important than programmer time. High-Level Languages A  whole  host  of  high-level  programming  languages have  been  developed  to  solve  one  particular  class  of problems   or   another.   High-level   languages   were developed to allow you, as a programmer, to work in a language   that   is   close   to   English   or   mathematical notation,   thus   improving   overall   efficiency   and simplifying the communications process between you and the computer. These high-level languages allow us to be more concerned with the problems to be solved rather  than  with  the  details  of  computer  operation. Examples  of  high-level  languages  include  COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, Ada, and C++. COBOL.—  COBOL  was  developed  for  business applications. It uses everyday English-like statements and is good for handling large data files. COBOL is the acronym for COmmon Business-Oriented Language. FORTRAN.—    FORTRAN   was   developed   for mathematical  and  scientific  work. It   is   used   by engineers,  scientists,  statisticians,  and  others  in  areas where  mathematical  operations  are  most  important. FORTRAN  is  the  acronym  for  FORmula  TRANslator. BASIC.—  BASIC  was  designed  as  a  teaching language  to  help  beginning  programmers  write programs. Therefore,   it   is   a   general-purpose, introductory language that is fairly easy to learn and to use.  With  the  increase  in  the  use  of  microcomputers, BASIC has regained popularity and is available on most microcomputer  systems. BASIC  is  the  acronym  for Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. PASCAL.—  Pascal is a language designed to teach programming. It is fairly easy to learn; yet it is a more powerful  language  than  BASIC.  Although  Pascal  is  not yet  a  standardized  language,  it  is  still  used  rather extensively   on   microcomputers.   It   has   greater programming capabilities on small computers than are possible with BASIC. It is used by many colleges and universities. It   is   named   after   Blaise   Pascal,   a mathematician and the inventor of the first mechanical adding  machine. ADA.—   Ada   is   a   modern,   general-purpose language  designed  with  the  professional  programmer  in mind.  It  has  many  unique  features  to  aid  in  the implementation  of  large-scale  applications  and  real- time systems. Its development was initiated by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). It is named to honor the achievements   of   Ada   Augusta   Byron,   Countess   of Lovelace, who was a supporter of and collaborator with Charles Babbage, the first person to propose the concept of   the   modern   computer.   She   suggested   using   the binary system of storage instead of the decimal system and  developed  the  concept  of  a  loop  to  execute repetitive instructions. Babbage is known as the father of  the  computer,  and  Ada  Lovelace  is  considered  the first  programmer. C++.—  C++  is  a  general-purpose  language  that works   well   with   microcomputers.   It   is   useful   for writing  both  operating  systems  and  database  programs. The programs are portable, which allows them to be run without change on a variety of computers. INSTALLING THE SOFTWARE Depending on the needs of the users, the software will  vary  from  command  to  command.  But  one  thing  is for  sure,  your  system  will  have  a  disk  operating  system to make the whole thing work. Beyond that, you may have   users   who   run   only   wordprocessing,   or   only database  management  applications.  Maybe  they  use graphics  and  do  desktop  publishing.  Maybe  all  their applications are accounting, and they rely primarily on spreadsheet programs and specialized accounting type programs.   Some   may   even   be   writing   their   own programs  in  languages  such  as  PASCAL,  BASIC,  or COBOL. It may be your job to help users install, learn, 3-3